Experiences with on-farm testing in maize variety evaluation in Uganda

G. Bigirwa, J. Kikafunda, J. Imanywoha,  P. Kibwika,  S. Mugo, M. Siambi, D. Beck  & A.O. Diallo

High seed prices and the unavailability of improved seed are major reasons why farmers continue to grow local and unimproved maize varieties. To overcome this problem, farmers were involved in grouping and evaluating improved maize varieties using the mother-baby trial methodology to identify varieties of their choice and later allow them to begin producing their own seed of improved, open pollinated varieties. Farmers seeking hybrid varieties were directed to the companies producing seed of selected varieties. Activities entailed testing sets of improved varieties and hybrids under optimal and sub-optimal fertilizer conditions in mother trials and under farmer conditions in baby trials for three cropping seasons in two  maize growing districts of Uganda. The varieties were commercial cultivars and elite experimental maize in the advance stages of testing. Four open pollinated varieties, SADVILA, Longe 1, Longe 4, and SADVEB consistently performed well across fertility levels, locations and seasons. Hybrids SC 715, SC 627, and Longe 2H were identified as suitable for growing by farmers and researchers. The criteria for choice of varieties by farmers at green maturity were cob size, cob filling time-to-maturity, at harvest, it was grain size, cob filling and cob size. This paper will present results from variety performance including farmer evaluations from the mother-baby trials.

Towards sustainable seed production and supply systems: lessons from the literature and a maize seed project in western Kenya and Uganda

D. Beck, S. Mugo, M. Siambi & G. Bigirwa

Among agricultural inputs, seed has the greatest ability to increase on-farm productivity and enhance food security.  The genetic properties of seed help determine the plants response to stress, set the upper limit on performance, and influence the productivity of other inputs by determining the ability of plants to convert sunlight, water, air, soil, and other nutrients into biomass.  Unfortunately, the lack of availability of high quality seed of suitable varieties at affordable prices is a common constraint for farmers throughout Africa and other parts of the developing world.   Seed may be supplied through “formal” commercial channels or more commonly in Africa through “informal” means largely based at the farming community level.  Successful seed production and delivery at the commercial level is complex requires bringing together numerous technical, institutional, economic, social, and political factors handled by a wide range of organizations.  Although community based seed production is generally simpler, efficient production and delivery at this level involves many of the same complex set of factors.  This paper will attempt to synthesize these factors drawing on the literature and the authors’ experience in several seed projects with particular examples taken from a RF funded maize seed project working in Western Kenya and Uganda.  Critical issues addressed will include farmer participation, capacity building, networking, marketing, flexibility, and sustainability.

The African rice: Economic importance in Mali and sources of resistance to stress

F.  Cisse & Y.  Doumbia

Rice cultivation in Mali is based upon three main systems that produce approximately 717,000 tons per year. The three systems are irrigated systems, deep water with control, and natural and semi-controlled submersion in the inland Niger river delta and lowland systems in the southern part of the country. The floating and deep water rice systems represent a potential of 500,000 ha. Segou, Mopti, Tombouctou and Gao Regions have this type of rice cultivation system. Two species of rice are grown in this ecosystem : Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima. This last species is an important crop in the inland Niger River Delta. In Mopti Region, cultivated area in naturel submersion is estimed at 100,000 ha, most of which is O. glaberrima. In Tombouctou Region O. glaberrima  varies annually from 15,000 to 30,000 ha. In spite of this important potential, the natural submersion rice cultivation contribution in national production is very low, less than 10%. Among factors explaining this low potential production we can cite the O. glaberrima low yield linked to grain shattering at ripening, poor cultural techniques land management, insufficient rainfall and lack of water in the Niger River. However, several cultivars among this species have been recognized as source of résistance to  drought, deseases and insects. To enable their use in breeding program the Rockefeller Foundation funded for missions for glaberrima prospection. About 160 cultivars have been collected and are being characterized for their use in futur varietal improvement programs.

 Alternative biotechnologies for controlling Striga:  the next generation

J. Gressel

New biotechnologies will be needed for Striga control.  The IR-maize seed treatment technology is an excellent stop-gap technology; but it too can be perfected by controlled slow release formulation of the herbicides used so as to prevent phytotoxic concentration of herbicide near the crop root in low rainfall conditions, or washout of the herbicide in high rainfall, as well as to extend the duration of control needed for long season maize.  Other herbicide resistant genes could be introduced/stacked; based on work with Orobanche and transgenic crop; inhibitors of EPSP-synthase (glyphosate) and dihydropteroate synthase (asulam) should be effective.  Additionally, work on Orobanche seedlings and tissue cultures indicated that herbicides affecting cellulose synthase as well as tubulin polymerization severely inhibited the parasitic weed.  Crops with target site resistance should allow control.  Stacked genes for herbicide resistances would allow the use of herbicide mixtures, which would delay the inevitable evolution of resistance.  The promising results of putting toxin genes behind a wound-inducible promoter in the crop have been obtained with parasitic Orobanche and could be tested with Striga and the crops affecting it.  Too little is known about the pathway(s) of biosynthesis of Striga germination stimulation; whether one or more stimulants are produced, and whether from the same precursors.  Should there be a single precursor, and should the pathway not be required for vital functions, it could be suppressed by RNAi or antisense technologies.  The fact that random gene suppression by transposon tagging has not elucidated a Striga resistant mutant suggests that this may be a futile hope.  Native microorganisms pathogenic on Striga have been proposed as biocontrol agents (mycoherbicides, bioherbicides), but none seem to be sufficiently virulent for controlling Striga in row crop situations.  Such organisms can be augmented with transgenes for hypervirulence that would interfere with the Striga hormonal balance and/or that secrete toxins toxic to the parasite, as has been done with mycoherbicides for Orobanche.   Additional genes could be introduced to produce ethylene to stimulate Striga germination.  We proposed a strategy to debilitate Striga designed to lead to its self control.  This would entail developing transgenic Striga with high copy number transposons carrying suppressed kev genes, i.e. deleterious transposons (DTs) which will quickly spread the gene to field populations because S. hermonthica is an obligate outcrosser requiring exogenous pollination.  The kev genes could be turned on by a chemical inducer applied by the farmer or a novel compound produced by a transgenic variant of the crop.

Poverty reduction through introduction of tissue cultured bananas in central Kenya

E. Kahangi

This project broadly involves conducting a participatory rural appraisal (PRA) to establish distribution and marketing of tissue cultured (TC) banana in Mt. Kenya region. Other activities include the collection of farmer-preferred local banana varieties, molecular characterisation, and in vitro conservation.  Selection of pilot sites was the first step for the PRA study. Pilot districts were selected based on the extent of ecological zones (UM1, UM2, and UM3 with irrigation projects), the proximity of the district to Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), and/or the presence of tissue-cultured (TC) banana in the district. The actual pilot sites were selected in ecological zones UM2, UM1 or UM3 under irrigation. The selection was based on banana production level, ease of access to farmers in adjoining areas, the availability of irrigation and the presence of organised and acceptable social groups engaged in agricultural activities.   Reconnaissance surveys at the selected sites was performed through visits and discussions held at the provincial, district and divisional agriculture offices. The PRA at Kagarii (Nyeri) is now complete while those of the other pilot sites are in progress. The genomic characterisation of local Kenyan banana (Musa Spp.) germplasm using Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) technique consisted of assembling the laboratory genomic analysis material. An import permit has been obtained from Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service (KEPHIS) and sent to International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP) centre for importation of 6 banana accessions to be used as standards.  Some banana suckers have been obtained from the farmers’ fields after characterisation and ranking according to preferences. Concurrently, DNA extraction has been evaluated using ‘Kisii matoke’ and ‘Giant Cavendish’ varieties in efforts to optimise the AFLP protocol. The Genome star and CTAB methods have been used during the evaluation. The CTAB method has so far given the best results and has therefore been recommended for DNA extraction.

Striga weed control in maize using herbicide seed coating technology

 F.K. Kanampiu, J.K. Ransom, D.K. Friesen & J. Gressel

During the past eight years, CIMMYT, in collaboration with the Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel), has developed a unique approach for Striga control in maize.  It combines low-dose of a systemic acetolactate synthase (ALS)-inhibiting herbicide seed coating applied to imidazolinone-resistant (IR) maize seed that leaves a field virtually clear of emerging Striga flower stalks season-long.  This maize allows application of high localized herbicide levels on or near the crop seed, but at one-tenth the rate that would be used as a spray application.  On-station and on-farm studies over several seasons in Eastern and Southern Africa demonstrate that 30 - 45 g/ha imazapyr (or some other ALS inhibiting herbicides) are optimal for seed coating for effective Striga control in various environments.  Low-dose herbicide seed dressing on IR-maize also controls Striga without impacting sensitive intercrops when they are planted 15 cm or more from maize hills.  This allows small-scale farmers to continue intercropping while using maize seed treated to control Striga.  This technology increases yields in Striga-infested fields greater than three-fold at a cost of less than US $4 per hectare.  The added cost of this 1 ton/ha added yield is equivalent to about 25-50 kg/ha maize yield, depending on market prices, suggesting potential benefit:cost ratios >25:1.  This technology, coupled with pulling rare Striga escapes (some of which could be resistant to the herbicide) can deplete the Striga seedbank, reduce infestation of susceptible rotation crops, delay the evolution of resistant populations, and can be used as a stop gap until genetic crop resistance becomes available.  CIMMYT initiated a breeding program originally in Harare and later in Kenya to incorporate adaptation of IR maize to the local environment.  This has focused on improving IR maize germplasm for resistance to turcicum blight and leaf rust diseases, reducing the proportion of Pioneer hybrid germplasm to less than 12.5%, increasing seed stocks.  High-yielding and disease-resistant IR-maize inbred lines, hybrids, and open pollinated varieties adapted to Striga-infested agro-ecologies in sub-Saharan Africa will soon be available from CIMMYT.  Our goal is to deliver this product to farmers in all major agro-ecologies in sub-Saharan Africa where Striga is endemic.  To achieve this goal, CIMMYT is collaborating with BASF and with seed producers to commercialize the technology and make seed-treated maize available to farmers.

 The potential of upland rice varieties among smallholder farmers in Uganda

P. Kibwika, J. Imanywoha, G. Bigirwa & J. Kikafunda

Rice is gaining importance in Uganda as both a commercial and food crop among small-holder farmers.  A survey of 400 rice farmers in five districts revealed that rice is grown mainly for cash income.   Nearly all the farmers growing rice categorised it as a cash crop and hope to rely on it for income in coming years.  The major constraint in upland rice production is labor for ploughing and weeding.  The growing concern for protection of the environment, particularly the wetlands, is likely to limit expansion of paddy rice.  Therefore, farmers who rely on rice for income require options for continued production of rice without necessarily encroaching on the wetlands.  Introduction of upland rice varieties is one such option that can sustain rice production and also reduce labor demands for production of rice.   

Working with a women’s farmer association in maize seed production

 J. Kikafunda, G.  Bigirwa, J. Imanywoha, S. Mugo & D. Beck

Seed production is a highly specialized venture which requires significant capital investment, technical know-how and a good distribution system, among other things.  Because of the associated investments, commercial production is generally too expensive for small-scale farmers. Hence, farmers tend to continue growing home-saved seed. This paper reports on the join collaboration between the National Maize Research Program (NMRP) of Uganda and a farmer group, the Bakusekamajja Women’s Development Association, based in Iganga district, Eastern Uganda. The association ventured into seed production with the objective of improving maize production for the social well-being of the people in the area.  The association approached the NMRP for advice and assistance.  Training was offered to the association starting from 1997. Recent support to the group has been in terms of supply of breeder seed, seed treatments and linkages to the seed national certifying agency.  The association has transformed itself into a successful community based seed production group producing 17 hectares of certified seed every year. The seed produced is sold at a relatively lower cost compared to seed produced by the private seed companies. This paper discusses the different forms of collaboration and working experience the national maize research program has had with the farmers’ association which has transformed itself into a successful community based seed production group.

Towards sustainable maize seed production and supply systems in western Kenya and Uganda

 S. Mugo, M. Siambi, G. Bigirwa, G. Odhiambo, D. Beck, A. Diallo & P. Kibwika

Seed is an essential, strategic, and relatively inexpensive input with a high rate of return to investment that often sets the upper limit for maize production and stability. Lack of quality seed of improved varieties limits maize production. Lack of seed is attributed to ineffective seed production and distribution systems for resource poor smallholder farmers. The formal sector, consisting of private and public seed enterprises, is better developed in Kenya than in Uganda, but mainly caters to wealthier farmers. The informal sector including NGOs, NARS, and community based seed efforts, has great potential to supply seed for resource poor farmers but is underdeveloped for various reasons. Numerous strategies have been proposed to more adequately supply seed to farmers.  This paper reports on a seed project started in 2000 with the principal objective to develop sustainable maize production systems.  Activities of the project include: 1) to improve the capacity of NARS to produce breeder and basic seed of improved maize varieties; 2) expose farmers to improved maize varieties through extensive on-farm variety testing using the mother and baby trial approach; 3) allow farmers to evaluate and select suitable varieties for the their conditions; 4) develop effective seed production and distribution systems among farming communities in collaboration with appropriate public institutions and private seed companies. Breeders’ seed production has been enhanced.  Results of multi-location trials and farmer evaluations from the nearly 200 mother and baby trials in six districts in western Kenya and two districts in Uganda indicated that the approach greatly enhanced farmers’ knowledge base and generates information that compliments the efforts by breeders to develop well-adapted and acceptable maize varieties. Experiences with farmer associations (mainly women groups) have showed that farmers can produce good quality seeds if offered training and assured of markets for their seeds. Development of farmer associations producing seeds is going on in Northern Uganda and western Kenya where these are less developed than in Eastern Uganda.  This paper discusses the various strategies employed by the project and includes an assessment of progress made in developing the seed production systems.

An investment fund for seed and related businesses in eastern and southern Africa

F. Mohamed

There are a number of factors in sub-Saharan Africa that justify the establishment of an investment fund to support the development and growth of the private seed sector. These factors include the economic advantages of seed of improved varieties, farmers' interest in acquiring new varieties, and the currently unacceptable status of commercial seed markets.  In addition, opportunities for seed companies have improved with increased liberalization of agriculture and with advances in crop breeding.  The countries of eastern and southern Africa are largely agrarian economies that depend on the production of basic staples. Maize is the most important grain in most countries of the region; it has replaced sorghum and millets in even some drier regions. For most of these crops, farmers have largely depended on local seed or planting material supply; households save their own seed, obtain it from neighbours, or buy grain suitable for planting in local markets. The major exception is maize, and many of the countries in the region have well-developed private or public maize seed enterprises.  The basis of most of these enterprises is hybrid seed. Because of the deficiencies in formal seed systems, the introduction of new crop varieties has been difficult. The liberalization of the seed sector in the region opens up tremendous opportunities for private sector seed companies to provide the products and services which state controlled enterprises have so miserably failed to do. Financing for agriculture in the region has been poorly managed in the past and government interference in the sector has resulted in banks losing money. Equity financing will therefore be the prime source of capital for these emergent companies which will drive the growth of agriculture in the region.  Apart from direct investments in seed companies, it is apparent that the delivery of good quality seed is dependent on investment in other related agricultural businesses. Relevant business sectors are: 1) plant breeding and seed production, e.g. companies involved in all aspects of plant breeding, seed production, seed marketing, and inputs marketing; 2) grain handling and marketing, e.g. facilities for cleaning, drying and storage of grain and related activities such as warehouse discounting systems and commodity exchanges if they can be developed within a reasonable time frame; 3) outgrower networks, e.g. companies that contract small farmers for grain or higher value crops which a larger company will process or package for local sale or export and 4) peripheral business opportunities, e.g. businesses which are further removed from direct farming activities, but could still impact on farmer incomes. Processing of grain and non-grain crops will come into this category, as will businesses which use communications technologies to improve farmer access to information on weather and  market prices.

Country-wide maize variety evaluation using the mother-baby scheme in Zimbabwe

L. Muza, D. Ruponga, V. Kazembe, E. Nyamutowa &  J. de Meyer

Country wide maize variety trials were initiated in 1999/2000 in Zimbabwe. The trials were conducted at research stations, rural schools and farmers’ fields. Recently released and pre-released varieties were given to the co-ordinating units by breeders from the national programme, international organizations and private seed companies.  Mother trials were conducted at 57 sites in 1999/2000, 52 sites in 2000/01 and 26 sites in2001/02. At each mother site two trials were conducted, one fertilized at the average farmers’ practice, termed the “yellow trial” and one trial had the recommended fertilizer level, termed the “green trial”.  The mother trials were managed by research personal at research stations, extension personal in districts, NGO personal, teachers and students at schools. The managers of the mother trials helped six farmers at walking distances from the mother trial , to plant and manage single block trials of the varieties planted under the farmers’ condition, termed the baby trials.  The co-ordinating unit with personal from both research and extension prepared the files, the inputs and acted as a technical back up and finally analysed the data and produced the final season report. At mid season field days were hosted at the mother trials inviting the whole community in the area to see the performance of the varieties and also give their views. During the season the community was free to visit baby trials. At the end of each season the trials data was statistically analysed for each site and across the sites. Three stakeholder workshops were held to discuss the results and develop work plans for the coming season.  Each partner was given the report to use in their area. This scheme has led to the official release of two open pollinated maize varieties and identification of other potentially good varieties. Farmers demand for seed of the varieties is high.

Maize variety testing through the mother and baby design

 M.S. Mwala, J. de Meyer & M. Banziger

Formal plant breeding (FPB) has been the main strategy in variety development with noted achievements over the past. Recently, however, another strategy, participatory plant breeding (PPB), has been adopted and this has proved to have added value the identification of appropriate varieties for specific farmer needs and agro-ecological conditions.  Researchers in different parts of the world have used different versions of the strategy. The Southern African Drought and Low Soil Fertility Project (SADLF), which is an effort by the national maize breeding programs of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and CIMMYT, adopted the “Mother-Baby Trial”, methodology for participatory variety selection.  Mother-Baby Trials are sets of experiments grown in and by farming communities. For each researcher-managed “Mother Trial”, there are as many as six to twelve corresponding farmer-managed “Baby Trials”. The Mother Trial evaluates a set of promising maize cultivars under both recommended and farmer-representative management conditions, thus demonstrating both differences between varieties and the effect of improved management practices. The Mother Trial is located in the center of a farming community, wherever the community feels is the best, which could be at a secondary school, with a progressive farmer, or at a research station. A local counterpart, who could be an agricultural teacher, an extension officer, a local researcher or an NGO staff manages the trials. The Baby Trials, on the other hand, contain a subset of the cultivars included in the Mother Trial (no more than four) and are planted and managed exclusively by the farmers that host them.  A number of advantages have been observed and realized through the use of these trials, which will be presented.  Results from trials conducted in the region in 2000 and 2001 have clearly shown that the PPB strategy gave added value, beyond what the FPB could have, in identification of the appropriate varieties for the resource poor farmers.

 Use of simple technology (good seed and cheap water) to boost food security and alleviate poverty

 A.M. Mwololo, T. Kambura & D. Nzyuko

Makueni District of Eastern Province, Kenya is categorised ecologically as “Arid-Semi Arid Lands zone 3”. This is a district of very poor smallholder farmers who rely on small harvests of maize and beans for both their food and cash needs.  Rainfall range from 150mm to 670mm over two seasons and is mostly on the lower side and poorly distributed.  The District has many permanent streams and underground water resources whose utilization for food production is estimated at only 2%. This represents a great deal of unutilised capacity and lost opportunity.  The project involved use of green grams Line 26 developed by the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) at Katumani Dryland Farming Research Station at Machakos. The variety is drought resistant, pest and disease resistant, early maturing and high yielding.  Two-acre plots were used to demonstrate the value of irrigation. Ploughing was done by oxen and hand planted. Six kg of seed was used for each acre, planting being 50 cm between rows, 20 cm between plants in the rows, Diammonium phosphate (DAP) fertilizer was used at planting in both irrigated and un-irrigated plots.  Thiophate (antifungal) and Bulldog (insecticide) were applied.  In Plot A 20 cubic metres per week of water was used to irrigate the crop using drip irrigation system. Plot B was rainfed. Except for the irrigation, all other variables were held constant.  On plot B, the total cost of production was Kshs. 4,150 (US $53.2) and yielded 5 (five) bags of 100 kg each.  The current market price is Kshs. 35 per kilogram, giving a total income of Kshs. 17,500 and a profit of Kshs. 13,350.  On plot A total production cost, including water, was Kshs. 14,150 and yielded 11 bags of 100 kg each, giving a profit of Kshs. 24,350.  This was borehole water, which is more expensive than other sources.  The use of gravity or simple pumping systems would cut the costs even more, increasing the profit margins.  Comparative profits from maize are Kshs. 4,200 and Kshs. 8,400 under non-irrigated and irrigated conditions, respectively.  We conclude that green grams present better options for the farmer and irrigation does double her income but a problem exists with access to capital and quality seed.  BIDII Seeds wishes to expand this project and provide the seeds as our contribution to food security and poverty eradication in Makueni District.

Evaluation and dissemination of introduced banana germplasm: A preliminary assessment of the planting material distribution system

K. Nowakunda, W.K. Tushemereirwe, P. Namanya, J. Namaganda, C. Nankinga & P. Ragama

The East African highland banana (Matooke), is an important food and cash crop in Uganda. However, it is susceptible to pests (weevils and nematodes) and diseases (black Sigatoka, bacterial wilt and banana streak virus).  Host plant resistance has been identified as the most appropriate solution to these problems and selection of resistant clones from introduced germplasm adopted as one of reducing losses due to these constraints.  Seven promising clones selected from foreign introductions were evaluated in Uganda.  The farming communities tried the clones for various uses including cooking, roasting, juice extraction and dessert bananas. Five clones were selected on the basis of bunch size, cooking quality and juice extraction ability. They noted that although the new bananas were not as good in taste as the East African highland banana they were as good as other starchy foods in their areas. The introduced bananas were acclaimed for the advantages of being higher yielding than all the food crops known to them. The selected clones are currently diffusing fast in the areas.  Performance of the distribution system was assessed through a survey. Results indicated that all the banana suckers are being efficiently utilized by either passing them free or at a cost to other farmers and there is overwhelming demand for suckers of KABANA 3H and KABANA 4H.  The evaluation sites and Kawanda serve as sources of planting material for private operators who have expressed interest in distributing the plants. Failure to access the planting material by the poorest farmers in some areas where demand is extremely high and, therefore most suckers distributed at a cost, was noted as a serious weakness of the system to be addressed.

Germplasm exchange and seed multiplication of cassava in Kenya challenges and opportunities

 H.M. Obiero, P.J. Ndolo, M.S. Akhwale & K. Orondo

Over 60% of cassava the production occurs in western Kenya. Farmers grow a wide range of traditional varieties while introductions from IITA are also grown. The popular varieties are: Tereka, Adhiambo lera, Tamisi, Serere and Kibandameno.  Constraints to cassava production are biotic, abiotic and socio economic. In 1995, a virulent form of African cassava mosaic disease, termed Ugv, devastated all the cassava crops in Western Kenya. We have introduced a large number of cassava clones first screened at Serere, Uganda. The germplasm is evaluated for resistance to CMD, cassava bacterial blight, anthracnose and cassava green mite. The clones are also evaluated for cyanide potential, yield, adaptability and acceptability. Released clones are rapidly multiplied under a three-tier system (primary, secondary and tertiary). Two varieties, SS4 and Migyera, were released in 1998 and primary sites have bulked and distributed over 24 million mini-stems in the region. Extension agencies and farmers have been trained in rapid multiplication techniques, processing and utilization.  Challenges facing cassava production include: development of early-bulking maturing varieties, more rapid multiplication, development of varieties with longer post-harvest storage capacity, and development of varities with better local adaptation.

Involving farmers in maize variety selection and seed production: experiences from the Lake Victoria region of western Kenya.

G.D. Odhiambo, M. Siambi, R. Apamo, E. Ochieng, P. Mbai, S. Mugo & H. DeGroote

Maize is the staple food for the Lake region of western Kenya. Hybrid varieties could increase productivity but environmental stress, especially low soil fertility and the parasitic weed Striga make hybrids unattractive to farmers. Farmers prefer open pollinated maize varieties (OPV), the seeds of which can be recycled for up to three seasons before farmers commonly seek new seeds.  OPVs can be improved for grain yield potential, foliar diseases, and tolerance to drought, low soil nitrogen and Striga. Seed of improved maize OPVs are often unavailable as they are unattractive to seed companies due to their low profit margins.  One way to help ensure adequate supply of high quality seeds is to have farmers produce and market maize OPV seeds. A collaborative project between CIMMYT and KARI was developed to expose farmers to improved maize varieties during their last phases of development, while allowing farmers to select material based on their own criteria. Farmers are then trained in seed production, hopefully leading to an increased capacity of the farming community to produce their own seed. The varieties are evaluated on-farm using the mother and baby trial design which enables a large number of farmers to access variety evaluation sites and participate in varietal selection. Through this approach, 28 maize OPVs from different maize breeding institutions were evaluated during the 2001 long rains season at 13 sites located in six districts of Nyanza province. The mother trials were grown under optimum and low soil fertility management. Farmers participated in the evaluations and selection of the varieties at two stages including flowering and harvest. Farmers developed and used their own criteria for selection during these periods. Desirable traits identified by farmers at flowering were earliness and large potential ear size. At harvest, desirable traits included large cobs, kernels, and grain yield. Farmers scored the varieties for each criterion and ranked the best three varieties at each site. Farmer preferences often differed among the sites, which often reflected differences in the agro-ecological zones. Since grain yield components were the main criteria used by farmers, different varieties were selected under high fertility and low fertility management as the varieties performed differently under these conditions. Two farmer groups are already participating in on-farm seed production and more communities are planning to participate in production of seed of varieties of their choice.  Several are in the process of release by Kenyan authorities. Our study shows that farmer participation in the evaluation process is a useful mechanism to expose farmers to new and improved maize varieties hopefully leading to increased maize variety adoption and eventual productivity.

Developing the smallholder seed market in Uganda: The Harvest Farm Seed Company experience

 J.A.. Okot

Seeds are the single essential input of all plant-based agricultural systems, since they determine the upper limit on yield potential and therefore the productivity of other inputs. In addition, high quality seed of improved varieties frequently makes a substantial contribution to agricultural productivity and sustainability since seed is frequently the only input that small holder farmers can afford. Developing a sustainable seed supply system that provides access to improved quality seed to all farmer categories remains a major challenge for the Ugandan seed industry.  The 3 million smallholder farmers constitute ¾ of the total, contributing to most of Uganda’s agricultural output. This underscores the importance of access to high quality seed by small holder farmers if Uganda is to achieve its plan to eradicate poverty through modernizing agricultural production. Moreover, Ugandan farmers have demonstrated that they are prepared to adopt new agricultural technologies, provided it is economically viable and risk-acceptable.   The question arises as to which entries make up the seed supply chain in Uganda and who is there in the supply chain to disseminate seed to the smallholder farmer category?  Both the public and private seed sectors have an important role to play in developing the small holder seed market in Uganda. The two sectors should complement each other in developing an efficient seed supply chain, allowing farmers access to high quality and adapted seed and thus contribute to sustainable agriculture. However, to achieve sustainable development from agriculture, the entire seed chain, from research, seed generation, and seed dissemination must be linked with market demand for the farm output. Uganda remains a promising production centre strategically located in the heart of East and Central Africa.

Development of well adapted, high yielding maize varieties for the Lake Victoria region

 M.J.F. Onim & M. Dida

There is a serious lack of suitable germplasm from which adapted maize varieties can be developed for the medium and low elevations of the east African region, particularly the Lake Victoria Region (0–1500 m).  This has resulted in a lack of adapted and high yielding maize varieties for this region.  There are many yield reducing stresses in the low and medium elevations of Lake Victoria Region of east Africa.  These stresses include low soil fertility, the parasitic weed Striga (Striga hermontheca), drought, diseases, insect pests, and small land holdings.  Diseases include streak, common smut (Ustilago maydis), head smut (Sphacelotheca reiliana), grey leaf spot (Cercospora zeae-maydis), rust (Puccina polysora and P. sorghi), northern leaf blight (Helminthosporium turcicum = Exserohilum  turcicum) and ear and stem rots.  Insect pests include stalk borers (Buseola fusca and Chilo partellus), aphids, termites, and armyworms.  Lowlands Agricultural and Technical Services Limited (Lagrotech Seed Company) is a young seed company that has been developing maize varieties for the lowland and medium elevations of Kenya with the main effort to incorporate genes for overcoming some of these stresses.  One of the most important characteristics in this region is low soil fertility.  These soils have very low pH (4.0–5.5) that leads to a widespread deficiency in plant nutrients, especially phosphorus (P).   Our recent soil surveys show that many macro- nutrients are deficient in the soils of the Lake region, including nitrogen (0 – 70%), organic carbon (20–80%), phosphorus (10–100%) and potassium (0–65%).  Deficient micronutrients include magnesium (0-50%), copper (0–45%), and zinc (0–100%).  Lagrotech Seed Company is developing maize varieties for lowland and medium elevations for (i) low soil fertility, (ii) drought tolerance, (iii) diseases, (iv)  insect pests and (v)  good cooking and eating grain qualities.  Since a majority of farmers in the Lake Region find purchasing of fertilizers too expensive, Lagrotech Seed Company is collaborating with CIMMYT to test a large number of low nitrogen tolerant hybrid maize varieties in the Lake Victoria region.  One trial has 25 entries, and the second one has 27 entries.  These trials were established in the long rains of 2002.   Lagrotech has developed a very prolific maize variety called Maseno Double Cobber (MDC) for smallholder farmers who have acute land shortage.  The most Striga-tolerant maize variety in Kenya at the moment is KSTP 94 which was developed by Dr. Omari Odongo of KARI, Kakamega.  This variety was developed from 1989 to 1994.  It is an OPV that was officially released in 2001.  It performs very well under moderate Striga infestation, but succumbs under very heavy infestation.  Lagrotech Seed Company is actively working on genetic striga tolerance on a number of maize inbred lines.  It is hoped that an OPV or hybrid maize varieties will be developed from this work in the next 2–5 years.  These stresses call for niche breeding where the developed maize varieties may not necessarily be adapted to a large range of ecological zones, but they should rather be adapted to specific niches of the stressful Lake Victoria Region.

Assessment of marketing and utilization of improved maize seed in southern Africa: The case of Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe

 M.A.R. Phiri

Agriculture remains the most important sector for economic growth and development for the majority of the SADC countries. Despite the dependence on agriculture, agricultural production in the recent past decade has failed to keep pace with rapid population growth.  While population growth rate for most of Sub-Saharan has been on average as high as 2.9 percent per year since 1980, the growth of agricultural production has only been 1.7 percent per year. Without increased agricultural production, food security, poverty reduction, and natural resource conservation goals cannot be achieved.  Food security in the region is defined in relation to the availability of maize, the main staple in these countries. Persistent drought, declining soil fertility resulting from continuous cultivation of the same piece of land, and limited access to agricultural inputs such as improved seed and inorganic fertilizer have been considered to be the major factors destabilizing maize production, income and food security in the SADC region.   Of all the inputs used in agriculture, none has the ability to affect productivity as much as seed (Morris, 1998). Through its genetic properties, seed places the upper limit on yield potential and influences the productivity of other inputs by determining the ability of plants to convert sunlight, water, air, soil and other nutrients into biomass.   Six studies were concurrently carried out in Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. In Malawi and Zambia two studies were carried out in each of the two countries. The main objective of these studies was to assess smallholder farmers’ utilization of improved seed in the SADC region. This study was aimed at determining product range and customer perception of the products. This looked at characterization and quantification of the market in terms of the various segments of buyers. This study basically aimed at understanding the socio-economic characteristics, seed buying behaviour and perception of the buyers of hybrid maize seed, open pollinated varieties (OPV) and those who do not buy any improved seed at all and at factors that determine the adoption, purchasing frequency and purchased amount (demand) of/for improved maize seed.  With the exception of Zimbabwe, the studies revealed that local maize varieties were predominantly still grown by the majority of smallholder farmers, where they occupy about 60 percent of the land put to maize. Hybrids are second representing 30 percent while OPV, occupy about 10 percent of the land. Much as farmers know that there is a yield advantage by growing hybrids, continued importance of such factors as poundability, taste, resistance to storage pests and the perceived high demand for fertilizer of hybrids push the majority of smallholder farmers to continue growing local maize varieties. As for the hybrids, it was found out that farmers were sticking to the varieties they knew best mainly those that had been on the market for a longer time and those that beside the yield advantage were also similar to local varieties, such as MH 18 in Malawi.  It is recommended therefore, that maize-breeding programs should as much as possible incorporate farmers’ preferences that influence the choice of the type of maize to grow.

Involving farmers in varietal selection: Experiences from the seed project work in western Kenya

M. Siambi, G. Odhiambo, S. Mugo, O. Odongo, A. Diallo, D. Beck & H. DeGroote

Development and dissemination of improved maize varieties and related production technologies that will lead to increased food production and improved farm-family livelihoods remains a major challenge for researchers. Farmers in marginal environments, where maize productivity is low due to several constraints, may rarely benefit from improved germplasm that cannot tolerate these stresses. Recognizing this fact, a collaborative project involving CIMMYT and KARI was developed to disseminate open pollinated maize varieties in western Kenya. The Mother and Baby trial approach was used for the on-farm evaluation of improved varieties that were provided by breeders of different institutions and private seed companies. During the long rainy season 2001, 28 varieties were evaluated at nine sites in South Nyanza (five districts), four sites in Bondo district, and two on-station sites. In the following seasons the project expanded to sites in Siaya and Busia. Farmers were given the opportunity to evaluate the different varieties at grain filling stage and at maturity, based on criteria developed through questionnaires. Early maturity and yield components were major criteria used by farmers to select varieties. Some of the varieties selected by farmers also ranked among the best ten from the Mother trial data. Low soil fertility and Striga infestation were very severe at some of the sites. From the two seasons’ data, it can be concluded that farmer evaluations complement varietal development and on-farm experimentation which will lead to faster diffusion of new varieties in the region.

Evaluation of selected beta-carotene rich sweet potato varieties for improving vitamin A nutrition in Iganga and Kamuli districts of Uganda

J.M. Ssebuliba, J.H. Muyonga & W.  Ekere

Reducing micro nutrient malnutrition can contribute significantly to improvements in health, productivity and well-being for women and children.  For example improving vitamin A intake can reduce infant mortality and reduce the severity of illnesses.  Food production and nutrition education are some of the strategies that have been developed to reduce vitamin A deficiency.  This project attempts to address the above issues through a two-year research program implemented in two districts of eastern Uganda. The project is being conducted with twenty womens’ groups in Iganga and Kamuli Districts of Uganda.  The goal is to improve vitamin A status among women and young children through increased production and utilisation of beta-carotene rich sweetpotato varieties.  On-farm agronomic performance, acceptability and beta-carotene content of four orange-fleshed (SPK004, Sowola 6, Kala and Ejumula) sweetpotato cultivars will be determined and compared to the farmer's best local cultivars.  Results of a baseline study in Iganga and Kamuli Districts indicate that sweetpotato is planted twice a year as one of the principal crops. It is a staple food, harvested piece-meal. There were no orange fleshed sweetpotato varieties being grown by farmers in the two districts. Farmers prefer early-maturing, high yielding, soft-fleshed sweetpotato varieties with large tubers. The varieties should also be of good taste and resistant to drought. Other vitamin A-rich foods, which include fish, meat, eggs, milk, carrots, green vegetables are expensive and not consumed on a regular basis. Mangoes are a cheap source of vitamin A in the two districts but their availability is highly seasonal. These preliminary results indicate that orange-fleshed sweet potato varieties have great potential for improving vitamin A nutrition in the two districts.

Transferring research results and technologies to end-users in Kenya and Tanzania: A case study from the tissue culture banana project

 S. W. Wakhusama, M.G.Karembu, F.N. Nguthi, A.S. Mbwana, M. M. Njuguna, L.W. Njuguna & S.B. Patel

This project was conceived in response to the rapid decline in banana (Musa) production experienced in Kenya over the last two decades brought about by pests, diseases and environmental degradation. The situation threatened food security and income amongst small-scale farmers who make up nearly 80% of the 30 million Kenyans and contribute over 90% of food production. The application of tissue culture (TC) technology to address these constraints was found appropriate to ensure availability of clean planting material and help alleviate the increasing poverty and hunger. To facilitate effective transfer of the technology, ISAAA identified partners of comparative advantage to implement the project by systematically introducing the technology to farmers; establishing public/private sector links; executing technology diffusion studies and developing a sustainable production-distribution-utilisation system. Smallholder farmers in Kenya are now reaping benefits in terms of access to clean planting materials, increased productivity and skills acquisition for technology management. The project has also expanded and moved to Tanzania where 110 tc banana demonstration plots have been established through the Farmer Field School (FFS) approach. Despite the successes of the project in Kenya, some constraints to large-scale commercialisation of the technology emerged. These include lack of technology transfer packages and access to credit and marketing. It is now imperative that a sustainable system of horizontal technology transfer through involvement of a broad network of partners with comparative advantage to mobilise large-scale impact needs to be established in order for smallholder farmers in East Africa to fully benefit from TC banana technology.